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The 

W. Martin Johnson 
SCHOOL OF ART 



ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION 
IN COLOR, PERSPECTIVE, 
LIGHTS AND SHADOWS, PEN 
DRAWING AND COMPOSITION. 

BY W. MARTIN JOHNSON 




NUMBER ONE MADISON AVENUE 
NEW YORK CITY, U. S. A. 






LIBRARY of congress] 


Tv/o CouifS 


Received 


FEB 12 


i9oy 


Copyn».it 

CLASS o- 

COPY 


entry 


XXc, No. 



Copyright 1909. by William Martin Johnson 



CONTENTS 

PACK 

ART OF EARLY TIMES 13 

SIGHT 20 

COLOR 24 

PERSPECTIVE 33 

LIGHTS AND SHADOWS 41 

VALUE 54 

LINE DRAWING 62 

SKETCHING 85 

COMPOSITION 97 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 



Assyrian War Chariot g 

The Man with the Pinks — Jan van Eyck . . . . 12 

Sketch of Mammoth— Prehistoric 13 

Mural Painting, Egyptian 14 

Mona Lisa — da Vinci 15 

The Last Judgment — Michelangelo 17 

The Assumption — Titian 19 

The Sistine Madonna — Raphael 22 

Descent from the Cross — Rubens 27 

The Smiling Saskia — Rembrandt 31 

The Last Supper — da Vinci 38 

Photograph of Shadow 43 

Photograph of Shadow 45 

Photograph of Shadow 47 

Photograph of Shadow 49 

Photograph of Shadow 51 

Photograph of Shadow 52 

Photograph of Shadow 53 

Porcelain — Mortimer Menpes 55 

Piece in Danger — de Neuville 56 

A Road in Sunshine — Corot 57 

La Cena— Notti 58 

Study in Planes 60 

Exercises in Pen Lines 64 

Examples of Bad Pen Work 65 

The Dreamer — Khnopff 66 

Blocking Out a Drawing 67 

Curves 68 

Blocking Out the Hand 69 

7 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS-CONTINUED 



PAGE 



Pen Drawing of Shadows 71 

Cross Hatching 73 

Full-Size Pen Drawing 74 

Same Reduced 75 

Sketch with Quill Pen 76 

Outline Drawing — Darley 79 

The Public Scrivener — Estorach 80 

Pan Vanquished by the Loves — Coypel .... 81 

Pablo de Segovie — Vierge 82 

Diagram for Proportions 83 

Pencil Sketch — Nance 84 

Quick Sketch for Values — Nance 87 

Brush Sketch — Forain 89 

Pen Drawing — Charlton 91 

Study of Waves — Riviere 92 

Study of Clouds— Ball 93 

Sketch on Tinted Paper — Gamper 94 

Sketch of Chair 96 

The Revolt — Gaston La Touche 98 

Composition of Lines — Charpentier 99 

Flight Into Egypt — Lorrain 100 

Circular Composition — Woodward loi 

The School of Athens — Raphael 102 

Madonna della Sedia — Raphael 104 

Holy Family — Martinetti 105 

Example of Balance 107 

Polish Grenadiers — Detaille 109 

Horizon Line Placed High no 

Horizon Placed Low — Gainsborough in 




Assyrian War Chariot. 3000 B. C. 



FOREWORD 

Many people are inclined to invest Art with mysticism 
and to approach it with reverence and awe, as if its secrets 
were to be revealed only to the inspired. We look upon 
the old masters as transcendental geniuses, but it should 
be remembered at the same time that they were men ab- 
sorbed in their work, who strove with marvelous industry. 
The idea that an artist is born an artist is a fallacy. One 
might as well claim that a stenographer is born a stenog- 
rapher. If any one thinks himself a born artist he is the 
victim of a delusion. While a taste and predilection for it 
are essential to success in any profession, art is the result 
of education, plus industry and concentration. Educa- 
tion may be gained in the home as well as within a school, 
and a knowledge of the principles of color, light and 
shade, form and design may be learned as readily as any 
trade, through a helpful guidance. " If one can write, 
one can draw " is a truism. 



In this school I have not only considered that side of 
Art which makes for culture and the broadening of the 
powers of perception and appreciation, but Art as a means 
of livelihood, an occupation in which there is a joy in the 
doing of things. 

It is to those who have not the time or money to go to 
an academy that I want to appeal. I have simplified the 
teaching of drawing, painting and designing and place 
these crafts upon the same matter-of-fact basis as other 
callings which engage the brain and brawn of men and 
women. 

W. MARTIN JOHNSON. 



"There is no Art so divine as that of reaching and 
quicf^ening other minds. " 



-CHANNING. 



I 




BERLIN GALLERY 



''THE MAN WITH THE PINKS" 

By Jan van Eyck (1382-1441) 
'One of the earliest if not the first portrait painted in oil" 




Sketch of Mammoth, on Piece of Ivory — Prehistoric 



ART OF EARLY TIMES 



IN GOING back to the very beginnings of art, we 
find that primitive peoples made rude drawings of 
the things that were important to them in their 
lives, and it is to be noted that their representations of 
animals are more often lifelike than those of human 
beings, which seems good evidence that animal life 
was the more interesting to them. 

The wall paintings of the Egyptians are but dia- 
grams, the artists rarely attempting portraits, because 
there was little incentive for them to observe individ- 
ual character. Their kings and queens were remote 
beings, endowed by the priesthood with godlike attri- 
butes, and naturalistic drawing was not encouraged 
because it might have dissipated the mysticism with 
which the priests held control over the masses. How- 
ever, some things were studied carefully. The lotus is 
always beautifully expressed, because the flower had a 

13 



peculiar significance, not only by reason of its color 
and form, but it was a sacred emblem and the symbol 
of happiness. 

Not until the Thirteenth century of the Christian 
era do we note any quickening of the artistic percep- 
tions. Cimabue was the first artist to draw figures 




From a Mural Painting in Thebes 

in action, and Giotto, his pupil, to give them light and 
shade. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) ventured to 
work entirely from nature, and his notes and sketches 
fill thirteen massive volumes. But until the genius of 
Michelangelo blazed forth art had remained in swad- 
dling clothes, timorous and groping for the light, for 
not since the days of Greek sculpture had any one 
dared to realize the beauty of the human figure, un- 
draped, as nature made it. To Michelangelo it meant 
the very essence of all art. To him the nude symbol- 
ized force, power, profundity. With the courage that 
Michelangelo's example awakened, other artists soon 

14 




LOUVRE, PARIS 



"MONA LISA" 

By Leonardo da Vinci (145 2-15 19) 

'The most marvelous of all portraits, ancient or modern" 



began to search for truth, and from this period the mod- 
ern development of art may be properly said to date. 

As "form" dominated Florentine art, so "color" 
is the distinctive element of the Venetian School. Its 
greatest master, Titian, rubbed and thumbed his pig- 
ments in the effort to realize his marvelous concep- 
tions of color, and his method of work has been the 
wonder and despair of modern painters. So each step 
in the progress toward adequate artistic expression 
might be uncovered from the rubbish of ages, and 
technical skill be shown to have grown simultaneously 
with the faculty of seeing and comprehending nature's 
beauty. 

Raphael the Umbrian was preeminent in some 
qualities; Albrecht Diirer the German, in others; 
Velasquez the Spaniard, Rubens the Fleming, Rem- 
brandt the Dutchman— each has taught us some- 
thing. What they discovered pertaining to the me- 
chanical side of art need not be sought for again. We 
can profit by their experiments. The van Eycks first 
painted with oil, for instance, and this fact is of inter- 
est, but their work has not the freedom of handling 
attained by later masters when the process was fully 
developed. 

However, one learns gradually to discriminate be- 
tween good pictures and pictures valuable chiefly as 
mile-stones marking the epochs in art history. By 
studying the masterpieces we appreciate that the 
artists went to nature for their inspiration, and that 
they must have had the power of seeing. No two 
people see things exactly in the same way, and we are 
led, therefore, to conclude that it is the individual 
point of view and the clearness with which truth is 

i6 




SISTINE CHAPEL, VATICAN, ROME 

"THE LAST JUDGMENT" 

By Michelangelo (,1475-1564) 

'The largest and most comprehensive picture ever painted. It is fifty-four feet six 
inches in height and forty-three feet eight inches in width" 



perceived which accounts for the difference between 
artistic productions. In art, then, there must be, first, 
the impulse, born of surplus energy, when man is re- 
lieved from the necessity of supplying his material 
needs ; next the perception and expression of form and 
the arrangement of shapes, and finally, the desire for 
truth to give character and realism. Art is seen to be 
a spontaneous exercise of human energy, stimulated 
by the inclination for pleasure, and controlled by the 
regulating principle of order. It is primarily manifest 
in personal adornment, followed by the making of 
permanent images to be used as a means of communi- 
cation or to record history. Religion utilized the art 
of painting for her purposes of teaching. The festal 
scenes of the Middle Ages inspired many paintings, but 
whatever the purpose of expression it always indicates 
the temperament and characteristics of the people 
among whom it is conceived. For example, sculpture 
was developed to its highest degree of perfection in 
ancient Greece, for there sports and pastimes produced 
the ideal human figure — a vital thing in Greek civiliza- 
tion — and the sculptors only followed a native instinct 
when they modeled their heroes, gods and goddesses. 
Their love for beautiful form was the impetus which 
taught them its proportions. 

As pictures are intended to reproduce the visual 
impressions we receive from the other arts and from 
nature at large, painting has to do with the repre- 
sentation of mass, contour, texture and color, but 
these characteristics can only be adequately rendered 
by him who has first learned to see. 



i8 




THE ACADEMY, VENICE 



"THE ASSUMPTION" 

By Titian (1477-1576) 

'One of the most grandly impressive of the world's great 
pictures. In it Venetian art reaches its climax" 



SIGHT 

While we look at objects with both eyes, few per- 
sons realize the importance of having two organs of 
sight. To be able to see around things, to " feel " 
that there is space between two objects in the same 
line of vision, one further away than the other, is a 
wise provision of nature. The image seen with the 
right eye and the one seen with the left eye are com- 
bined in the brain to give us the effect of substance 
and reality. Close one eye and everything appears 
thin, as in a photograph. Objects look as if they were 
against air, not in it, as we should see them with both 
eyes open. Consequently, the copying of photographs, 
reproductions of colored studies, diagrams, etc., is of 
no value whatever to the student, as he must go, even- 
tually, to nature, and learn to perceive her subtle 
effects for himself. The mere act of drawing and 
painting is not necessarily art. 

The hand of a blind man can be trained to use a 
pen, but the artist must be able to " see." It is not 
eye vision so much that needs cultivation, but the in- 
tellectual processes which analyze and record the 
impressions received from the eyes. 

The power to appreciate nature is supposedly an 
inborn faculty which, unless notably conspicuous, is 
not valued highly. All minds possess it, however, 
and, like any physical attribute, it is capable of develop- 
ment. The teaching of a pupil to " see " is the funda- 
mental idea in this course of study. Rules and for- 
mulae stifle spontaneity, and it is doubtful if there are 
any which can be helpful in their application. To so 
train the faculties that the quality of a color, the 



relationship of lights and shadows, the contrast be- 
tween an object and its surroundings, can all be accu- 
rately determined, is to learn the meaning of truth. 
But truth, artistically speaking, is not a photographic 
reproduction of nature. While the artisan strives to 
duplicate his pattern and make a good copy, the artist 
understands truth to have a greater significance. 
He knows that nature is not altogether beautiful. He 
knows that it is necessary to select the parts essential 
to his purpose and that the quality of his art depends 
upon his power to choose, omit, combine and enhance 
effects by harmonious surroundings, and accentuate 
character. Truth is observed in all that the artist 
undertakes, but it must be subservient to the artistic 
aim. Unless the imitation of nature results in the 
beautiful, such imitation is not worth while. 

The draughtsman who draws with precision that 
which is set before him has learned to use his tools, 
but if he secures nothing more than a likeness of the 
model he does not possess the deeper insight required 
in art, the ability which lifts the artist to a higher 
plane. Our eyes warn us of approaching danger ; they 
tell us that food is upon the table, that it rains, that 
the sun shines, and the average person is content with 
this limited vision. It answers for material needs. 
But the astronomer discovers stars in the sky, the 
physician detects the symptoms of disease, the Indian 
sees a footprint, all imperceptible to the unskilled. 

The great teachers of art will tell you that little 
more can be done than direct the attention of the pupil 
to the model and point out to him the qualities to look 
for. The shriveled herring, the bunch of carrots, the 
wooden platter, are not interesting ordinarily, but in a 




ROYAL GALLERY, DRESDEN 

"THE SISTINE MADONNA" 

By RAPH.A.EL (1483-1520) 

'The apex of religious art; the best easel picture in the world" 



masterly painting of these humble things an unex- 
pected beauty of color is revealed. The effects were 
not invented by the artist, but he has translated the 
truth to bring it within the comprehension of the 
uncultured. Certain characteristics have been empha- 
sized, others have been modified or left out altogether 
to enhance the interest. We learn from this picture 
that beauty is not confined to gorgeous sunsets, but is 
all about us, even in the commonplace, awaiting recog- 
nition. 

The art patron who exhibits his masterpieces to 
the pubHc is a benefactor. He stimulates an apprecia- 
tion of the beautiful in nature. He teaches people to 
see the glorious panoply spread before them, un- 
dreamed of until the spark of perception is kindled. 
In Europe, with its older civilization and the greater 
privileges afforded the people of visiting the galleries 
of art, the masses understand better than we the cul- 
ture and enjoyment to be gained from looking at good 
pictures. In this country our time has been so en- 
grossed with the practical things of life that we are 
only just awaking to our opportunities. When as a 
nation we have learned to see, our artists will find 
substantial recognition for their work. There will be 
no need to go abroad for subjects. Abundant material 
is at hand in our great industrial life. We are a nation 
of producers, we make the best steel, we raise stupen- 
dous crops, we excel in science, and the painter who 
cannot find pictures in our great foundries, in our co- 
lossal buildings, in our teeming cities, in our peaceful 
valleys will not appeal to American taste. If we have in 
us the development of a National School it will depend 
upon our powers of discrimination and artistic vision. 

23 



COLOR 

A painterlike study of nature must first of all be 
the intention of the pupil. The power of expression 
in color is certainly greater than in black and white, 
and the early use of color encourages and stimulates 
the pupil. 

Let us, then, take up the brush and palette at once, 
and proceed to gain some practical experience with 
them. It is useless to bother about the technique 
of painting at the beginning; for, having actually 
taken one step, the learner will make progress in 
the next toward a better understanding of his medium, 
and so on, to a conception of his needs in the nicer 
processes. It is not so much the immediate skill in 
applying colors that we hope to acquire as the 
capacity for seeing and judging them rightly under 
varying degrees of illumination, or light and shade. 
The materials used by the great masters in painting 
were simple. We read about the relative qualities of 
oils, varnishes, pigments, etc., all to little profit until 
we can estimate the value of such discussions based 
upon a personal knowledge of our requirements. 

In nature we have to deal with a range of hues 
from pure white, spoken of as a combination of all 
colors, to black, which is the absence of all color. 
Pure white is sunlight ; black, absolute shadow. Di- 
rect light from the sun is painfully dazzling, and we 
tolerate it only when reflected. We speak of white 
paper, but the paper itself actually has no color. It is 
white light reflected from the paper to the eye that we 



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see. A hole is referred to as a black hole, but the hole 
has no color, because there is no surface to reflect 
light. To prove that sunlight is made up of all colors, 
pass it through a prism, which will break it up into its 
component parts violet, blue, green, yellow, orange 
and red. We see these colors because they are re- 
flected to the eye. Three of these are primary colors — 
blue, yellow, red ; and three secondary colors violet, 
green, orange. Each secondary color is a combination 
of two primary colors blue • red violet ; blue - 
yellow green; yellow - red = orange. Blue is 
complementary to orange ; red complementary to 
green; yellow complementary to violet. Red and its 
complementary green are said to be harmonious. So 
are blue and orange, and yellow and violet, for all 
three primary colors are present in each group. 

Contrasting pure yellow with pure red suggests the 
lack of blue. Pure red with pure blue needs yellow, 
and pure blue and pure yellow require red to com- 
plete a harmony. 

Black objects absorb light. White objects reflect 
hght. As light is heat, black clothing is warmer than 
white, because white cloth reflects the light and heat 
instead of letting it penetrate to the body. 

The rose absorbs into its surface both the blue and 
yellow rays and reflects to the eye the red ray only. 
A buttercup absorbs the red and the blue rays and 
reflects the yellow. In looking up into a cloudless 
sky we see only blue rays, for the red and yellow rays 
have been intercepted by the air on their way to the 
earth. To put the matter more clearly, we regard 
glass as transparent, but look edgewise through a 
piece of plate glass and it is found to be green. Glass 



allows the blue and yellow rays to pass through more 
readily and in greater proportion than it does the red. 
The piece of glass must be thick enough, however, to 
intercept the red rays, so that the remaining yellow 
and blue rays only are perceived, which combined 
make green, and light must come through enough air 
for it to hold up the yellow and red rays before the eye 
tells you that the sky is blue. 

If we dilute a color with white we make a tint. 
If we add black to it we produce a shade. Tints or 
shades of one color contrasted with tints or shades of 
another color, or a tint or shade contrasted with a pure 
color, make pleasant color harmony. North Ameri- 
can Indians daub themselves with pure reds, blues, 
yellows, and the effect is startling. But civilization 
refines the eye and we prefer the more delicate com- 
binations. A connoisseur will choose an antique Per- 
sian rug because it is fine in color harmony. A bright 
new rug will appeal to the novice as preferable, but 
after his eye has become cultivated he will select the 
one less brilliant. In some of the paintings of the old 
masters the colors were probably once discordant, but 
time and many coats of varnish have lowered the tones 
and made them mellow and agreeable. 

Color is associated with life and warmth. As color 
fades it presages death. Colors are referred to as 
warm colors and cool colors, but any color may be 
made to appear warm or cool by its surroundings. 
Yellow and red are considered the warm colors ; blue 
the cool color. By adding blue to yellow, green is the 
result. If the yellow predominates in the green it is 
warm ; if blue, it is cool. The more blue, the cooler 
the green. Red and blue make violet. A red violet 




CATHEDRAL, ANTWERP 

"DESCENT FROM THE CROSS" 

By Rubens (1577-1640) 
"The best known and appreciated religious painting in the world" 



is warm; a blue violet cool. But a cool violet 
or a cool green surrounded by a colder violet or 
a colder green or by pure blue appears warm by 
contrast. 

Color as used by the artist has decided limitations. 
No pigment approaches the brilliancy of reflected 
white from a piece of paper in sunlight, and none will 
equal the depth of profound shadow. We are obliged 
to use what we can get and rely upon contrast 
to heighten effects. Red is intensified by green, 
blue by orange, yellow by violet. The gamut of 
color at our command seems insufficient alongside 
nature, but by concentration and gradation we can 
suggest the more vivid hues. 

Modern painters have succeeded in securing effects 
of diffused light that were never attained by the old 
masters, and these later pictures indicate that a new 
era is dawning for the art of painting. 

Light coming into the room or studio from the 
north a north Hght — is best because it is more uni- 
form and steady, but sunlight may be diffused by 
placing a screen of white muslin over the window, to 
be removed on cloudy days. The light should come 
from above the level of the eye and preferably fall on 
the left side, the artist, of course, standing while he 
works so that he may step away from his easel to 
accurately judge effects. 

Painting in oil is to be preferred over all other 
mediums. The colors come in tubes ready for use. 
The hues required are mixed on the palette with the 
knife, and applied with the brush in precise and 
vigorous strokes. 

Care should be exercised in putting on the 



pigments not to overload the colors. The inexperienced 
are very apt to fall into this error. A solid body of 
color must be secured, but it is better to effect it by 
degrees. The highest light should be noted first, next 
the strongest dark; all of the other tones coming be- 
tween the two, but not equal to either in mass or 
intensity. Much of the disappointment experienced in 
the use of oil colors might be saved the pupil if he 
would only exercise a little patience, and not daub 
away without purpose or meaning. When color is 
first applied to a smooth surface, or upon a previous 
painting, it does not adhere so firmly, nor is it in 
other respects as manageable as it will become in the 
progress of the work. 

Whatever objections may be urged against paint- 
ing as much as can be done at once, leaving as little as 
possible for an after-process, it is the safest method 
for the novice— but it must not be regarded as an 
ultimate aim ; for, by it, the higher excellencies of 
color are unattainable. When he may have become, 
by practice, familiar with his materials and have 
gained insight to the peculiar character of the pig- 
ments, the student may venture more. 

The unskilful are apt to imagine that richness of 
color is to be attained by the use of bright and glaring 
pigments, and bestow, with an unsparing hand, their 
white and yellows, reds and blues— as painful to the 
eye as a harsh, strident voice is to the ear. The lan- 
guage of Art should be gentle, eloquent and intelligi- 
ble, but any painting not in accordance with a truthful 
representation of natural appearances cannot be good 
art. Our observation and study of nature, in refer- 
ence to color as well as form, should be directed 

29 



toward her broad and general aspects and not the 
unimportant details. 

It might appear that in drawing from nature, with 
the object before us, no more could be required than 
to copy what we see. This would be true if the 
eye were a safe and faithful guide as well as critic; 
but, like too many critics, however apt in the detection 
of error, it is not always equally ready and reliable in 
discovering causes of failures or supplying a remedy. 
The unlearned in art may discover something wrong 
in its representations, but it is rarely that others than 
the educated can positively identify the something, 
and suggest a means of correction. 



30 




ROYAL GALLERY, DRESDEN 



"THE SMILING SASKIA" 
By Rembrandt (1606-1669) 

'This portrait of Rembrandt's wife is one of the finest examples 
of color harmony extant" 



PERSPECTIVE 

It is a familiar truth to every one that in pictorial 
representations objects remote from the point of ob- 
servation should be reduced more or less in size ; but 
it is only by the laws and principles of Perspective that 
these proportions can be scientifically regulated. 

Perspective is the science which fixes by rules the 
method of representing the appearance of objects 
more or less distant from the eye. The principles of 




Figure 1 



linear perspective are few and simple, although capa- 
ble of endless elaboration and application. It is the 
aim to make them plain to the beginner, so that he 
may be saved uncertainty and error in drawing at 
the very start — not that it will be necessary for him 
to make mathematical studies in perspective for or- 
dinary objects, but to be able to apply the rules for 
self-criticism. 

33 



When the vision is directed to any scene in na- 
ture, it embraces all that is contained in a circle 
bounding a certain number of light rays which focus 
on the retina of the eye. The center of this circle 
is the point of sight, and radiating from this point the 
image becomes less and less distinct. As the eye 
moves the circular picture moves with it, the point 
of sight always remaining in the center. The picture 
we paint may be rectangular in form but it is a sec- 
tion taken from the circular picture that we see, but 
not necessarily from the middle. To further exem- 
plify this fact, take a card with a circular opening in 
it four inches in diameter. Hold the card at arm's 
length and, looking through the opening, fix the at- 
tention upon an object on the horizon. This object 
is at the "point of sight"; then move the card back 
and forth to embrace as much of the surroundings as 
you care for. Next, select, with a rectangular open- 
ing, a portion of the circle for the picture. 

The line of the horizon is always on a level with 
the eye and the " point of sight " in perspective is 
directly in front of you and on the horizon line. 
Take up your position in the middle of a perfectly 
straight railroad track which stretches away into 
the distance. (See Fig. i.) The "vanishing point" 
is where the track meets the horizon and all lines run- 
ning parallel with the track, the rails, the telegraph 
wires, the fence and the pathway on either side, con- 
verge at this point. But the lines parallel to the hori- 
zon line or those at right angles to the rails, such as 
the railroad ties, the cross arms on the telegraph poles, 
remain parallel to the picture frame and are not in per- 
spective. Furthermore, all lines which are upright 

34 



and plumb are parallel to the sides of your picture, 
and, therefore, not in perspective. The vanishing 
point in this example is the point of sight, but the 
point of sight is not always a vanishing point. 

The surface of the canvas on which you paint 
the picture is called the " perspective plane." If 
you trace on a piece of glass, held upright before 




Figure 2 

the eye, the railroad track, the telegraph poles, 
etc., you have drawn the picture on its perspec- 
tive plane. 

The " station point " is the eye or the point from 
which the picture is seen. In making a perspective 
drawing, the point of station and the perspective 
plane must always remain at a fixed distance from 
each other. All other points may be varied and the 
perspective plane may be shifted from side to side 
or up and down, at the pleasure of the draughtsman, 
to throw the point of sight higher or lower on the 
perspective plane or to one side or the other. 

Thus far we have considered " parallel per- 
spective." We now come to " angular or oblique 

35 



perspective." The point of sight was the vanishing 
point in the drawing of the railway because the rails 
were parallel and came together directly in front of 
the eye, but if we had another railroad crossing these 
tracks diagonally the second road would converge 
on the horizon at another vanishing point. (See 
Fig. 2.) Each set of parallel lines running in 



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Figure 3 

different directions has its own vanishing point, and 
there may be any number in a picture, depending upon 
the position of objects relative to the point of station. 
A vanishing point may be on the horizon line as in 
the case of the railway, and, again, it may be above 
or below the horizon or outside the picture altogether. 
Note the lines projected from the box lid in Fig. 3. 

36 



We will take another illustration. Standing so 
that the point of sight comes on a line with the hinges, 
and opening a door half way, we see only the edge of it. 
Close it part way and the lines of the upper and lower 
edges slant toward some point on the horizon line but to 
one side of the point of sight. Close the door still 
more and the point where the two lines converge 




Figure 4 



recedes further and further from the point of sight 
until when the door is actually closed it ceases to be in 
perspective. See Fig. 4. 

Now take two doors in the same wall. Open one 
so that the top and bottom lines converge on the 
right-hand side of the point of sight, and the other 
door so that its lines converge at a point on the left- 
hand side of the picture. Here we have two vanish- 
ing points. 

Next, place a rectangular table in the center of 
the room and parallel to the horizon line, which, of 
course, is imaginary indoors or when concealed by 

37 




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Figure 5 

hills, trees, buildings or other interferences, and note 
that the lines from the table come together just as the 
railroad tracks did at the point of sight. "We have 
here three vanishing points, one for each door and 
one for the table, but they are all on the horizon 
line. (See Fig. 5.) 




Figure 6 



Open a box and the Hnes of the lid converge above 
and below the horizon line. We have four vanishing 

39 



points in this drawing, two on the horizon and two 
outside the picture. (See Fig 6.) 

Drawing circles in perspective is on the same 
principle. See Fig. 7. First draw a square, in per- 
spective, and then an oval inside it. This will be the 
circle in perspective. 

Herein lie the elementary principles of perspec- 
tive, and when they are understood will answer every 
requirement of the beginner. The architectural 
draughtsman applies these same principles in the 
construction of a drawing of a building from plans 
and elevations, not only so that it appears realistic, 
but the original measurements can be resolved again 
by reversing the calculation. 




Figure 7 



40 



LIGHTS AND SHADO^VS 

The characteristic feature of graphic art is the 
representation of form and space upon a flat surface 
by means of light and shadow, rendered either in 
black and white or in color. The use of light and 
shade in painting dates from about the Thirteenth 
century, but the artists of that period rarely attempted 
more than the delineation of selected near-by objects. 

Rembrandt, the acknowledged master of light and 
shade, by the disposal of graduated tones, was the 
first to succeed in expressing distance as well as solid 
form. The beginner finds light and shade so closely 
associated with color that it is difficult to accurately 
judge one irrespective of the other without some 
knowledge of the principles which govern their re- 
lationship. 

The intensity of color depends upon light or the 
amount of illumination under which it is seen. 
Where the sunlight touches a red cloth the color is 
brilliant ; in the shadow it appears dull, yet we know 
the cloth to be the same red all over. It is the 
difference in the intensity of the red rays which 
causes the color to vary in appearance. 

These degrees of intensity are called the " tones " 
of red, of blue, of yellow or whatever color is meant, 
just as C natural is a tone in music. It may be in 
the higher octaves or in the lower, but always the note 
is C natural. We speak of a piece of music as pitched 
in a high key when it is arranged for high notes, or in 
a low key when arranged for the low notes. A 
picture painted in a high key is one where light tones 
prevail, and in a low key where dark tones prevail. 

41 



A night scene would be in a low key ; a landscape in 
sunlight high in key. In a Claude Lorrain glass one 
sees how nature is lowered to a pitch within the possi- 
bilities of painting. 

If we paint a picture altogether in light tints or 
altogether in dark shades we do not utilize the entire 
scale of tones at our disposal, or if we do not take 
pure white paint for our highest light, and if our 
lowest color note is not absolute black, the full limit 
of the palette has not been reached. 

The key in which a picture is painted is not im- 
portant, provided the proportion and relation of the 
lights and darks are right. While there are no rules 
that govern the exact amounts of light, middle tint 
and deep shadow which shall be used to make a 
picture agreeable, the artist must arrange and dis- 
tribute them so as to secure a proper balance. Ob- 
scurity and heaviness are to be avoided in low-toned 
pictures, and to give variety to those painted in a 
high key restful shadows must be introduced. 

Indoor effects are softer than outdoor effects 
because the tones melt into one another without 
harsh contrast. " As smoke loses itself in the air, 
so are the lights and shadows to pass from one to 
the other without any apparent separation," is a 
maxim attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, and it is a 
valuable suggestion to the pupil. Nature is not 
violent in her effects except on rare occasions, and 
when high lights are brought into contact with strong 
darks in a picture the contrast should be made with 
care and deliberate intention. 

Everything, from the mountain range to the 
finest grain of sand, has form, revealed to the eye 

42 







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by light and shadow, regardless of its color. Light 
and shade make a grape round, and they also give 
form to the cluster as a whole. Light and shade 
make some parts of an object appear to come forward 
and other parts to recede. On the sphere, the cylin- 
der, the human figure, or upon any curved surface, 
shadow separates from light gradually, but on angular 
surfaces light and shade separate abruptly. 

In considering light and shade, distinction should 
be made between natural shade and accidental 
shadow. Natural shade is the shade which is in- 
separably connected with every object reflecting 
light. Accidental shadow is the shadow which one 
object casts upon another object by the former being 
interposed between the latter and the light. An ac- 
cidental shadow may be lighter or it may be darker 
than the object casting the shadow. If the object 
casting the shadow be of the same color as the object 
upon which the shadow falls, then the shadow itself 
is darker than the shaded side of the object casting 
it, and it is still darker if it falls on an object darker 
than itself. When an object casts its shadow on 
another object of lighter color then the shadow is 
lighter than the shaded side of the object casting the 
shadow. However, this is not an invariable rule, as 
shadow is also affected by reflected light. 

Cast shadows do not indicate the forms of the 
objects casting them, but conform to the surface of 
the one that receives them. Without the aid of the 
cast shadow it is often difficult to explain or com- 
prehend a surface. Cast shadows have well-defined 
edges, no matter whether the objects casting them 
are curved or angular. All cast shadows are darkest 

44 






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when closest to the object casting them, and they 
are lightest when most distant from that object. 
The lights on objects receiving cast shadows appear 
brightest where they are in immediate contact with 
the darkest of these shadows. 

These laws apply to dark as well as to light objects, 
but the effects are more apparent on the light ones. 
The brightest light on a cylinder is at some little 
distance from the outline on the illuminated side, 
and the shade is darkest at some little distance from 
the outline on the shaded side. The shaded side is 
lightened next to the outline of a cylinder or a sphere 
by reflected light. 

The color of an object is also influenced by the 
color reflected upon it from some other object. An 
object in direct sunlight appears lighter in color than 
it does indoors, and the real color of an object is more 
easily determined in diffused light than when illumi- 
nated by direct rays. Cast shadows out of doors are 
really lighter than cast shadows indoors, although 
they may not appear so. It is contrast which gives 
the brilliancy of effect. 

Claude Monet, the great " luminarist," who 
painted " trees that sway in the breeze, clouds that 
scud across the sky and water that ripples over the 
stones," invariably refused to teach. " Go to na- 
ture; paint what you see," said he to those who 
wanted to learn his method. " There is no trick, but 
I tell you paint that tower forty times, as I have done, 
to learn the effects of light. They are changing con- 
stantly. Monday morning the church was violet 
gray, in the evening a rose color, the next day blue, 
at one time a light mass against a darker sky, again 

46 



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a somber pile in relief with the sunset glow behind. 
This is my method; there is no secret." 

Referring again to the bunch of grapes, we may 
build a picture upon the same principle. While each 
object is truthfully drawn in light and shade, we can 
go one step further in art by casting a shadow over 
certain parts of the composition, lowering portions 
in tone to bring out into relief other features of more 
importance, thus producing in the picture depth and 
the impression of distance. 

As linear perspective is the science of delineating 
on a flat surface objects as they appear to the eye, 
so aerial perspective is the art of gradually eliminating 
details and modifying colors and light and shade as 
distance increases to secure the effect of atmosphere. 
The air intervening between us and any remote object 
has a very appreciable influence upon color. It 
softens the contrast of light and shadow and mellows 
hard outlines. The denser the atmosphere the more 
it blurs the vision, until, as in an extreme instance, a 
fog blots out the landscape altogether. 

In high altitudes the air is clear and objects are 
more distinct than when seen near the surface of the 
earth at the sea level. Moisture arising from the 
ground and particles of dust that remain suspended 
in the air constitute minute reflecting bodies which 
in the aggregate interfere with perfect sight. 

It is thought by some that blue, or any color 
tinged with it, has a retiring quality. This may be 
true and, if so, could be explained by the fact that pure 
air is in itself of a bluish tint. But it is doubtful if 
blue differs from other pigments to the extent that 
it can be called a distance color. Reds or yellows, 

48 




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as well as blues, can be made to retire if the tones 
are properly adjusted in their relation to other colors. 

The artist having a well-defined conception of 
what he is to do determines what method of treat- 
ment he will adopt as being suitable to his subject. 
For instance, in the pastoral scene we obtain repose 
by gentle gradations of light and color, whereas, in 
a battle picture, we see brilliant lights and shadows 
in violent contrast. The emotional influence of any 
treatment must be considered and the degree and 
arrangement of light and shade should be governed 
by the character of the subject. 

It is a common error to make shadows too black. 
A simple way of testing lights and darks is by com- 
paring a white card with the lights and a piece of 
black velvet with the shadows. Lights coming from 
several different directions in a picture are difficult 
to manage, and the pupil is advised for the present to 
confine himself to the consideration of light coming 
from one point only. 

Tone has been explained to mean the amount of 
light reflected from a surface ; but tone has a further 
significance. When the French speak of " tone," it 
is understood to mean quality, just as we refer to the 
tone of a man's " get up," his bearing, or to a musical 
instrument with " tone "when it is free from harshness. 

In America we have come to regard tone as mean- 
ing the prevailing hue of a picture, as warm in tone, 
cool in tone, yellow in tone, gray in tone. A warm- 
toned picture is supposed to convey the sense of com- 
fort and security ; a cold-tone picture to be more suit- 
able for a tragic episode. Green or blue lights are 
used in the theater when the ghost walks, but the 

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breakfast scene is flooded with warm light. Tone is 
not monochrome, but a combination of all colors 
tinged with one complexion. For instance, the rays 
of the sun percolating through the haze of a misty 
morning, cast a glow over the landscape and give it 
a rosy tone. On the other hand a green shade on a 
lamp may produce an unpleasant tone. 




PHOTOGRAPH OF SHADOW 

Showing cast shadow from capital of pillar onto shaft, indicating cylindrical form 
of shaft; also uneven surface under cornice 

52 




PHOTOGRAPH OF SHADOW 

Example embodying important principles of light and shade. Note the 
spherical form of each grape; also form of cluster. 



VALUE 

The word "Value" is often misused. When ap- 
plied to the art of painting, value is to be understood 
to mean the relative intensity of one tone compared 
with another tone, judged by a standard of light. 
The term is not used exclusively in connection with 
color, for values are not dependent upon colors. 
Tones in black and white have values as well as tones 
in color. Color tones always descend in value from 
light, the highest, to dark, the lowest, but in engra- 
vings or etchings black is sometimes given the high 
value and white the low. It may be that the en- 
graver, having put more labor into his dark parts 
than onto the untouched portion of his plate, which 
prints white, estimates values upon a pecuniary basis. 
However, the distinction is unimportant so long as 
we have a predetermined unit, which in these pages 
will be the dark. 

While a tone is a definite note in the color scale, 
the value of a tone depends upon its relation to other 
tones higher or lower than itself. We alter a color 
by adding lighter or darker colors to it, but we change 
the value of the tone by increasing or diminishing its 
force as compared to its surroundings, for every dark 
is higher in value than the next darker tone, and 
every light is lower in value than the next lighter tone. 

The various colors differ in reflecting power. 
First comes pure yellow, which reflects the most 
light; then, in order, descending the scale — orange, 
green, red, blue, violet. Therefore, pure yellow has 
the highest value if compared with other pure colors 
seen under the same illumination. 

54 




"PORCELAIN" 
By Mortimer Menpes 

Example showing breadth of shadow and simple arrangement of lights 




"PIECE IN DANGER" 

By Alphonse de Nextville 

Showing brilliant contrasts of lights and darks scattered through the composition 
to convey the impression of turbulent action 





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"A ROAD IN SUNSHINE" 
By Corot 

Example of gradations of lights and shadows to give repose to a picture 





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In a painting each object may be given its exact 
local color, but realism sacrificed to harmony is art. 
Gradation and concentration are essential in a pic- 
ture, just as the interest in a drama or a novel is 
brought gradually to the climax. The value of a 
tone is enhanced when it is supported by gradually 
lessening values, whereas, like values detract from 
one another. 

A picture is made up of different planes, similar 
to the scenery in a theater. There is the foreground 
plane, the middle-distance plane, an extreme-dis- 
tance plane; but the number of planes may be in- 
definite. All things in each plane, however, should 
have the values consistent. The painter of to-day 
accomplishes more by the adjustment of values in 
similar hues than the old masters did by contrasting 
colors. A greater delicacy and fiuency of color is 
obtained by the modern method. To value a dark 
red against a dull red is more refined art than paint- 
ing a blue object on a red background. One scheme 
results in beauty of color; the other is a matter of 
contrasts. 

The values of tones then depend upon the relative 
amount of illumination they receive. It is not to be 
understood that a painting is made up of patches of 
flat tones in the way a decorator handles color. In 
Rembrandt's paintings, for instance, one can hardly 
define the area of a tone. While the dominant color 
in his pictures may be a luminous golden brown, by 
analyzing it we find the blues, reds and yellows dis- 
tinct enough, but all skilfully blended together. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds laid down as a principle that 
the chief mass of color in a picture should not be a 

59 




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cold tone, but Gainsborough in his " Blue Boy " 
painted the figure clad entirely in blue, though when 
examined the blue is seen to be interspersed with 
warm greens and browns. The complexion of a 
picture by Corot may be pearly gray, but you will 
find that he has not obtained it by mixing a quantity 
of gray color upon his palette and applying it to the 
canvas. He gets the effect by combining several 
colors together with deft strokes of the brush upon 
the work itself. 

This technique, of course, is representative of ad- 
vanced painting and hardly within reach of the be- 
ginner. The pupil should first learn to see and render 
tones and their values in masses. The eye as it be- 
comes trained will eventually perceive the more 
subtle variations. To record the difference in values 
between a piece of white paper lying upon white snow 
against a background of white stone will call forth 
the best efforts of the painter. But herein is the 
secret of his art. The degree of truth with which he 
translates such a detail of nature is the measure of 
his ability. 



6i 



LINE DRAWING 

With the abiUty to appreciate form the pupil may 
now turn his attention to Line Drawing. The art of 
line drawing and the art of " laying on " colors each 
has its distinctive beauty, but the two are not to be 
compared ; both are necessary for expression. 

Line drawing will not be difficult for the pupil who 
already writes a fair " hand," for writing is noth- 
ing more than drawing conventional forms. The 
pupil learning to write has a copy book containing 
simple exercises, which he practises diligently to ac- 
quire a facility with the pen. He progresses from 
elementary strokes to letters. By practice he learns 
to write subconsciously or without mental effort, and 
is enabled by means of written words to express him- 
self intelligently. The art student, like the penman, is 
first introduced to the simplest objects— the cube, the 
sphere, the cylinder, the cone— each in turn until, 
ultimately, through the various stages of his course, 
he learns the principles of form, and, if asked to draw 
any one of these primary objects, he could do so from 
memory. Subsequently he applies this knowledge of 
proportion, direction, space, light and shade to the 
delineation of any natural object, be it a tree, a house, 
an animal or a human being. 

The skill of the artist, of course, is much greater 
than that of the penman, because he has learned to 
perceive and execute a greater variety of forms. The 
writer has but twenty-six conventional letters to deal 
with ; the artist an infinite number. The picture writ- 
ings of the cliff dwellers and the drawings of some of our 
caricature artists are nothing more than diagrams, but 

62 



they convey their meaning. The higher phases of art 
are but a development of the diagram, coming closer 
and closer to the interpretation of individual character, 
until we reach the portrait painter, vsrho produces a 
likeness and at the same time interprets the person- 
ality and temperament of his subject. 

And £0 it is seen that drawing and writing are com- 
parable, and the skill required varies only in degree. 
The artist is ever on the alert to acquire new charac- 
ters for his alphabet, and it is by accumulating bits of 
knowledge here and there that he eventually secures a 
vocabulary with which to give his thoughts artistic 
expression. The greater the number of words or sen- 
tences retained in his memory the greater are his re- 
sources in the language of art. 

It is not to be understood that the artist does not 
forget many things, and for that reason he constantly 
refreshes himself at the fountain of nature and verifies 
his work by the aid of models. But the artist is not a 
camera which can only record what it sees. The 
greatest care is necessary in study so that no imperfect 
impressions find lodgment in the memory to stifle and 
confuse the precise and definite. 

As the pen requires accuracy and precision, its use 
is advised for line drawing. Those who begin with 
the pencil in one hand and a rubber in the other, will 
soon find, however convenient the latter may be, that 
it induces carelessness, a habit that is difficult to over- 
come. The pencil or charcoal is each good in its place, 
but not in the hands of beginners. 

In his first exercises the student will closely ob- 
serve the beginning, direction and termination of a 
short straight line and then draw the line with one 

63 




SIMPLE EXERCISES IN PEN LINES 

stroke of the pen. It may aid the pupil to practiseon 
ruled letter paper. Trace the lines from left to right 
and from right to left, making each stroke distinct and 
clear. Endeavor to draw at once with confidence, not 
with uncertain touches, as if feeling the way. When 
some degree of skill is thus obtained, lay aside the 
guide and draw without its aid. There will be found 
some difficulty in making continuous lines of great 
length, for the hand is likely to get in the lead of the 
sight and stray from its proper direction. When the 
pen does go wrong, stop and draw the line over again. 
Practice until you can accurately draw horizontal, up- 
right and oblique lines and make others parallel to them. 

64 



Ragged lines 



Light and heavy lines; uneven tint 




Made with the same pen 




IE^^==^ 



Made by double pen Two pens in one holder 

EXAMPLES OF PENWORK TO BE AVOIDED 



A number of parallel lines close together and 
evenly spaced make a tint, but a mixture of light lines 
and dark lines or thick lines and thin lines produce 
uneven textures. Each mass of lines should be the 
same color throughout and the outline of the space 
covered clearly defined. These flat tones can be 
made to express modeling and every degree of light 
and shadow. This is only a mechanical method of 
rendering tones and values, just as the painter does in 
color. A student should become proficient in this 
broad handling before he attempts graduated tints, 
which are not so vigorous or direct. 

65 




"THE DREAMER" 

Line drawing siiowing extreme care in rendering details with white paper 
utiHzed to fullest extent 




Blocking out the drawing in straight lines 



The delineation of a curve is based upon the true 
perception of its variation from the straight line. The 
faculty of ascertaining and expressing the amount and 
character of the variation comes through practice. The 
pupil may draw one curve, but he will not find it so easy 
to duplicate unless he has first defined the straight line 
upon which to estimate the degree of curvature. 

A simple way of estimating curvature is to hold the 
pencil or a ruler between the eye and the object to be 
drawn, so that it marks the beginning and the end of 
the deflection. The pupil should first point off spaces 

67 



Curves are estimated by their deflections from straight lines 

along the lines on ruled paper, and connect these dots 
by curves just touching the line above. 

It is to be borne in mind that a curve or circle 
is made up of an infinite number of straight lines un- 
appreciable to the eye. But in drawing a curve the 
artist will simplify it by lengthening the straight lines 
and reducing them to the least possible number. 
That is to say, an arc in its simplest form will be two 
straight lines runing from each end and meeting at 
the center. These straight lines can be subdivided 
into four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, an indefinite 
number, until we touch the curve at all points. 

Beginners are apt to exaggerate curves and 
should, therefore, express them with straight lines, 
whenever it can be done without making a drawing 
look angular. In the example of the curve drawn 
between the ruled lines, drop from the point of contact 
on the upper line a perpendicular straight line to the 
horizontal line below. This will be the measurement 
of curvature, and it should be determined before pro- 
jecting any curve. In the human figure there are no 
straight lines, but a combination of convex curved 
lines produced by the muscles overlapping each other. 
But the skilful draughtsman rarely permits himself to 
draw curves. He prefers straight lines as having more 
vigor and simplicity. What seem to be concave curves 
or depressions in the living human figure are where 
two or more convex curves meet. This is easy to de- 

68 




Hand blocked out in straight lines 

termine for oneself by looking at the hand. That which 
the person who has not been taught to draw thinks 
is a depressed curve is seen to be made up of convex 
curves so disposed as to give the effect of a hollow. 

69 



Many will find these primary exercises simple, but 
every student can profit by them. Often one has a 
certain aptness, though unconscious of its derivation, 
which will serve within limitations, but it is only by 
training and the right discipline of this talent that its 
scope of efficiency is enlarged and its measure of use- 
fulness increased. 

The artist should think out his picture and see it 
in his mind's eye before beginning work on it. He 
must have a well-defined idea of what he intends to do. 
If a painter, for instance, wishes to put a tree into a 
landscape he decides exactly what kind of a tree it 
shall be and makes the necessary studies for it, 
whereas some draughtsmen will draw the oak, the 
elm, the birch or the maple all alike, and make con- 
ventional foliage do duty for the African jungle as 
well as the Italian garden. But the artist should 
know that trees have individualities, just as men and 
women have, and that the most insignificant object 
demands truth in its portrayal. 

After intention must come conception. By concep- 
tion is not meant the creation of new forms but the 
reestablishment of mental images sufficiently charac- 
teristic to enable the artist to assemble them in an 
orderly way in relation to each other, so that they will 
express his idea when developed on the paper or can- 
vas. Of course there can be no adequate conception 
of a thing without a thorough knowledge of its struc- 
ture and detail. This intimate knowledge comes 
from association with it, but our impression is liable 
to be vague unless fixed in the memory by the art of 
drawing. 

The conception, clear and distinct, must be ever 
70 







PEN DRAWING OF SHADOWS 



present during the work. It should be so fixed that no 
variation or change from it will be necessary. By 
vacillating from one idea to another, by rearrangement 
or introducing afterthoughts, no great work of art is 
possible. Supposing an artist started a picture in bright 
sunlight, when everything was aglow with color, and 
while he kept on painting the sky became overcast and 
a mist rose to befog the landscape. The first work 
would become gradually obliterated. And to carry 
the absurdity still further, if the sun came out 
again with the artist still at his painting, the picture at 
the end of the day would be nothing but a patchwork 
of unrelated parts. 

The figure painter who intends to depict some great 
historical event will think over the subject for months, 
possibly for years. He makes innumerable notes and 
preliminary sketches until the composition and char- 
acters become so vivid in his imagination that the 
empty canvas is as the completed picture to him. 
Every part has been considered, decided upon, all his 
materials, costumes and models have been selected ; he 
is ready to begin work. With a few strokes he indicates 
the location of the figures ; a fold of drapery falls into 
place, architectural features take shape, broad masses 
of light and shadow are indicated. The artist paints 
here a little, there a little, all over at once — no one part 
given more importance than another. The man who is 
his own master completes the picture with decision. 

How labored the production if with every passing 
fancy a change had been made. The painting would 
never be finished. Conscientious painters never at- 
tain their ideals, but a greater degree of excellence is 
secured by working from an adequate conception. 

72 



In pen drawing it is a mistake to make a prelimi- 
nary sketch in pencil. Rubbing out injures the sur- 
face of the paper and, if done after the pen work is 
finished, is likely to disturb some of the ink and a poor 
reproduction results. It is best to draw backgrounds 
first rather than the figures or principal objects, which 
should stand out in proper relief from their surround- 
ings when put in, and not require working over after- 
ward to strengthen them should they be found weak. 






Examples of cross hatching 

Effects secured with one set of lines are more crisp 
than where " cross hatching " is introduced, but when 
this is necessary the first lines should be allowed to dry 
thoroughly before crossing them with others. Do not 
water ink to make it grey. Each line must be pure 
black, the edges clean and sharp. 

Strive to do work that will not need correction, but 
when necessary there are two ways of making altera- 
tions in a pen and ink drawing. One is to paste a 
piece of thin paper over the part and redraw on it. 
The other is to take out the portion to be done over 
with an eraser, rubbing lightly through a hole cut in a 
card, so that the edges of the rest of the drawing will 
be left sharp and clean. Do not use a knife; it 
roughens the surface of the paper. 

Before beginning their drawings some artists rule 
faint upright and horizontal lines in blue on the paper 
to aid them in getting the architectural features 
plumb. As the blue lines do not photograph, they will 



73 




PEN DRAWING, ACTUAL SIZE 




THE DRAWING ON OPPOSITE PAGE REDUCED ONE-HALF 




SKETCH FROM NATURE, WITH A QUILL PEN 



not show in the reproduction. Fine bristol board is 
the best paper for pen drawing. A grained surface 
may be more agreeable to work upon than a smooth 
one, but the lines will always come ragged when repro- 
duced. It is unwise to use white on a drawing. After 
everything else has been finished, lights may be picked 
out with a sharp knife. 

For large drawings quill pens are sometimes use- 
ful. There is nothing so pliant in skilled hands as 
these serviceable tools, once extremely popular with 
artists, and it may not be amiss to note how they are 
made. The quill should be scraped on the side where 
it is to be split, first toward the point and then back- 
ward, much or little, according to the flexibility of the 
nib desired, then cut off the end. Start the split with 
the knife and run it up with the right thumb nail. 
The rule for a writing-pen is to cut the shoulders the 
length of the split, but for drawing some variation may 
be necessary. The right nib, as you hold the pen, 
should be a little the longer of the two, to produce a 
delicate line. 

Examine your pen lines under a magnifying glass 
to see if they are sound —that is, perfectly black, with- 
out rotten spots or fuzzy edges. A little care in this 
direction may keep your work in favor with the en- 
graver or publisher, and it is prudent and politic to 
avoid putting the latter to extra expense for finishing 
plates made from faulty drawings. 

Textures and surfaces may be expressed by the pen 
line — some by upright lines, others by horizontal 
lines. One draughtsman gets his effects by broad, 
coarse handling, another by fine, delicate treatment. 
But generally speaking, the finer Hues in a drawing 

77 



recede and convey the impression of distance, while 
coarse strokes advance and are more suitable for fore- 
grounds. An outline looks softer when the prelimi- 
nary sketchy lines are not erased and their retention 
adds life and atmosphere ; not necessarily do they indi- 
cate lack of knowledge. 

A beginner invariably makes the mistake of striv- 
ing for detail and pottering over the unimportant in a 
drawing because he takes pleasure in doing that which 
looks pretty. But such work disturbs the repose of a 
composition. The eye goes to detail almost as 
quickly as to concentrated light in a picture. In fin- 
ishing a drawing there may be parts which need a few 
extra touches to enhance the interest, but detail should 
be added sparingly. Keep the work as a whole con- 
stantly in mind. 

The size of a drawing for reproduction can be left 
to the judgment of the artist. Some make their draw- 
ings four or five times larger than the illustration is to 
be, but twice the size is ample. It is well to settle for 
all time what reduction is best suited to one's handling. 
Reproduced by the photo-engraving process a draw- 
ing is much refined, and a reducing lens, to be had of 
any dealer in optical goods, will show what this refine- 
ment will be when the drawing is brought down to the 
plate size. 

The proportions of a drawing to fit a given space are 
fixed by a very simple method of measurement. Say 
a picture must be reduced to exactly three by five 
inches. Measure off this area and rule up the form 
with a T square, projecting a Hne through the two 
corners of this space and beyond it, and drawing up- 
right and horizontal lines perfectly square to meet on 

78 







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this diagonal. The larger space is then in exact pro- 
portion to the smaller area. Reverse the process and 
the measurement of the reduced plate will be shown. 
It is well for the art student to remember that sug- 
gestion is better than elaboration. The drawing that 
has in it only a sufficient number of truthfully pre- 
sented facts to indicate its full meaning becomes an 
intellectual stimulus and gives one a commensurate 
sense of satisfaction. For the same reason a sketch 
from nature may have a greater charm than more fin- 
ished work. There is a saying that "It is the stuff 
left out and not what is put into a drawing which 
makes it good." In other words, leave something to 
the imagination. When you have told your story it is 
best to stop talking. As Poe remarks, " It is the epi- 
gram which is the most immediately and the most 
universally appreciated." 




Method of enlarging or reducing the area of drawings in proportion 



83 




PENCIL SKETCH 

By R. Morton Nance 



SKETCHING 

Drawing from nature compels the student to ob- 
serve, to appreciate what he sees, and the act of draw- 
ing fixes the image clearly and permanently in his 
memory. As the eye becomes trained it picks out 
more and more unerringly the beautiful, but at first all 
things ought to have an interest. The student should 
proceed on the plan that he finds himself in a strange 
world where everything has the charm of novelty, and 
that sketches are to be considered artistic capital for 
future needs. Then even the ordinary utensils of 
daily use will have a new meaning to him. A wheel- 
barrow, for example, is a familiar object, but make a 
drawing of one from memory and compare it with an 
actual wheelbarrow. No further proof will be neces- 
sary to convince one that there is much to be learned 
even from the commonplace. 

The artist looks for " picture quality " in the 
things about him. The grandeur of a mountain he 
may ignore for a bit of barnyard, or the glorious sun- 
set for the fire in a village smithy, because he has 
learned to discriminate between the things that are 
within the range of painting and those that are not. 
No matter how interesting or magnificent a view may 
be it does not necessarily follow that it is suitable to 
graphic art or can be produced with the means at our 
disposal. This fact is not generally appreciated. 

Graphic art deals with appearances, not with ma- 
terial truths. We know the kettle is made of copper, 
but to the painter a glint of light transforms it into 
burnished gold. The beginner who is too conscious of 
local color is likely to fall into error and paint what he 

85 



thinks, not what he sees. Although blades of grass 
are green, a field of grass may appear yellow, violet, 
gray or some other color. 

The student should promptly learn to seek for 
character in the objects he undertakes to sketch. The 
new timbers under a wharf are probably stronger and 
better suited to support weight than those which they 
replaced, but the old ones were covered with moss and 
had " character " ; they were picturesque and artisti- 
cally superior to the new ones. 

In sketching, first consider general appearances. 
Partially close the eyes, or squint, in order to see the 
masses without detail, and note the values. If this is 
all that you have time or opportunity to secure the 
sketch is worth preserving, for it will always serve as a 
reminder to the mental vision of something the eye 
has seen. The slightest memorandum may contain 
the happiest suggestion, and even written notes will 
recall to memory effects which otherwise might be 
forgotten. 

A helpful and permissible way of getting propor- 
tions is to hold the pencil at arm's length, in line with 
the subject to be sketched, and run the thumb up and 
down on it until the distance between the end of the 
pencil and the thumb coincides with the space seen 
between two points in the model, as, for instance, the 
height of a door. Still keeping the arm at full length, 
turn the pencil around and find another measurement 
to equal the first, say from the edge of the door to the 
window. Half the height of the window is equal to 
the width of the door, and so on. 

As there are skeletons in live creatures, so in an 
artistic sense there are skeletons to inanimate things. 

86 




QUICK PENCIL SKETCH TO GET VALUES 

By R. Morton Nance 



A landscape has its skeleton — a tree or a building. 
And while correctness of drawing is to be the artist's 
ultimate object, the surest way to secure it is by know- 
ing the underlying principles of construction. 

Facility in sketching cannot be gained by imitating 
another's work. If it were possible to acquire the im- 
pulse, knowledge and certainty of the master hand by 
copying, teaching art would be a very simple matter, 
but the power by which good works are produced must 
be sought for in adequate experience and consequent 
skill acquired. 

Do not make your problems difficult ; the complex 
are not the most interesting —of ten the reverse. A 
gate post may have in it sufficient variety of light and 
shade to claim your best attention. On the weather- 
beaten surface of a barn door nature may produce a 
symphony in color. It is for you to discover her 
charms and interpret them for the benefit of others. 
That is the mission of the artist. 

As the cultivation of taste comes from association 
with the beautiful, f amiUarity with the masterpieces in 
art is recommended. Opportunities are open to 
everybody. In museums and public libraries one can 
see and study good pictures, and there are many books 
treating of art and artists which are helpful in pointing 
the way to self-culture. In the biographies of the old 
masters the student will find suggestions of practical 
value. 

When we remember that nothing we do can be un- 
done or effaced, it behooves the student to be deliber- 
ate, careful and serious in his work. Purposeless 
daubing with a brush or scratching with a pen is a 
step backward. Wasted time cannot be recovered, 

88 




BRUSH SKETCH IN FEW LINES 
By Forain 



and the dissipation of energy is debasing and enerva- 
ting to the faculties. Self-discipHne is the hardest and 
at the same time the most important task that the 
student faces. 

Sketching in water colors is not advised for the be- 
ginner, for the reason that the attention is diverted by 
the uncertain nature of the medium. It is usually the 
accidental blending of washes which makes a water 
color drawing interesting, but for serious study the 
pupil should not resort to it, at least until he knows 
how to paint and draw with exactness. A careful pen 
or pencil sketch with written descriptions of the color 
effects, which afterward may be translated with the 
oil colors or chalks, will answer every purpose. 

Pastels or colored chalks are admirably suited for 
sketching. Rough paper is used and the colors are 
gently blended, or " rubbed in " with the fingers. 
Great care must be exercised, so that the color does not 
brush off, however, as there is no way of " fixing " 
pastels. These chalks come in every tint and shade 
and any one can use them without special instruction. 

It is with some reluctance that instantaneous 
photographs are admitted to be of help to the artist, 
because the student is prone to place too much reli- 
ance upon them, and to forget that sure knowledge 
only comes in the actual drawing from nature. In 
the hands of one who has already learned to draw, to 
paint, to select, they may be resorted to as an expedi- 
ent to obtain realism in figures with action, but it 
should be remembered that the instantaneous photo- 
graph does not satisfy the cultivated eye. There is 
always to be considered the postures immediately pre- 
ceding and directly following the closing of the cam- 

90 




PEN DRAWING 
By E. W. Charlton 

The border line is put on to give quality to the sky and water 




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SKETCH ON TINTED PAPER 
By G. Gamper 

The horizon Hne is concealed in this composition, but note that it is low, as indicated 
by the perspective of the house 



era shutter, which the artist in his picture combines or 
composes to give the impression of stability, and at the 
same time the sense of movement. 

The photograph of a man walking shows one foot 
suspended in the air ; of a horse running that he keeps 
one leg under him stiff and straight. But scientific 
facts when stated in art are to be modified to bring them 
into relationship with other things. There may be a 
temptation to copy a strikingly good photograph, and 
there are specious arguments to justify the practice — 
but although a quick lens and a quick plate are useful 
at times, their value to the artist is limited. In an 
instantaneous photograph the whirling wheels of an 
express locomotive look as they do in the picture 
taken while the engine is at rest, but a record of the 
billowy smoke pouring from the stack is worth getting ; 
the characteristics could not be obtained in any other 
way. A photograph, therefore, is to be taken for some 
specific purpose. 

The impression that artists pose models before 
commencing a picture and make servile copies of them 
is erroneous. The fact is, that the best drawings of 
figures in action are constructed without a model — 
from memory and afterward corrected from the 
model. Photographs may be utilized the same way. 

The pleasure derived from looking at a picture de- 
pends somewhat upon the spontaneity with which it is 
produced. The musician practises scales until his 
hands run over the keys without error. The music is 
before him; he plays it readily at sight —spontane- 
ously. So, through study, the pupil will be able to 
read nature at sight. By practise we also acquire the 
power of getting at the essence of a subject promptly, 

95 



and the advantage of a reliable method is in knowing 
how we did a thing, and in being able to do it again. 
The freedom with which the masters in art resort 
to almost any medium in order to secure the record of 
an effect would seem extraordinary if the secret of 
excellence was not to be traced to higher qualifications 
than the dextrous management of materials. The 
lead pencil, chalks, charcoal, colors are all used. 









PEN SKETCH OF CHAIR 
96 



COMPOSITION 

The artist's intention should be apparent above all 
else in a picture and the arrangement of a composition 
be such as to make it immediately understood. To be 
obliged to look at one part and then at another, taking 
the sum total of information upon which to base a 
conclusion, is confusing. There should be one domi- 
nating feature, and the other incidents take their places 
in relation to it. 

Objects thrown together haphazard will not make 
a picture, no more than is an incoherent jumble of 
sentences literature. There must be an orderly plan 
of procedure. The theme, the main incident, the 
principal figure or the climax, whatever you care to 
designate the fundamental idea, must be easily com- 
prehended. For example, take the sentence, " A man 
is plowing in a field." Man is the substantive, plow- 
ing the predicate. Every word has a clear relation- 
ship, directly or through other words, to the principal 
noun or the principal predicate — that is, to the main 
subject, man, or to the main action, plowing. In a 
painting of the incident, the horse, the sky, the trees, 
the distance all have a qualifying relationship to the 
man plowing. 

The size of a painting is decided upon before pro- 
ceeding with the composition. Various considera- 
tions influence the artist in determining the dimen- 
sions of his canvas, but the most reliable guide is the 
requirements of dignity. If a man wishes to represent 
nature on a grand scale he should conceive in a large 
way and have plenty of space to work in. The por- 
trait of a splendid figure in the fulness of power 

97 




"THE REVOLT" 

By Gaston La Touche 

Composition to give the effect of space and movement beyond the frame of picture 




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CIRCULAR COMPOSITION 
By Alice B. Woodward 




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ought not to be cramped into a small area, and a 
trivial subject is not exalted by making a large paint- 
ing of it. 

It was a principle with the old masters to show as 
much of a figure as possible. Almost without excep- 
tion they give a complete representation of the head. 
Raphael's " School of Athens " contains fifty-nine 
heads, all but four showing the faces, Rembrandt 
observed the principle even more rigidly than Raphael. 
In his " Hundred Guilder " print there are forty fig- 
ures, and every face has a history written in it. Care- 
ful design is conspicuous in the works of the old mas- 
ters. Sometimes it is in the arrangement of lights. 
Again, it is in the beautiful interweaving of graceful 
lines. In some pictures we distinguish the convolu- 
tions of a scroll, and in Raphael's "Madonna of the 
Chair " the lines yield to the exigencies of a barrel 
head upon which the picture is painted. 

The composition of line is based upon the princi- 
ples of ornamental design, the lines returning into one 
another, leading the eye pleasantly from point to 
point. A vortex of lines within a space is a simple 
device in composition, either for the oval, the round 
or the rectangle. Another kind of composition is star- 
like, the lines radiating from a center. 

When the architectural lines or the furniture and 
subordinate objects are not complete within the frame 
and extend beyond the limits of a picture the scheme 
suggests by a part a much larger whole. If the artist 
wishes to express the personality of a figure he will 
centralize the interest upon it, but when introduced 
incidentally it is the means of directing the eye to 
something more important. 

103 




PITTI PALACE, FLORENCE 



MADONNA OF THE CHAIR" 

By Raphael 

Painted on the head of a barrel 




"HOLY FAMILY" 

By Giacomo Martinetti 
Composition to centralize interest 



There are various ways of calling attention to a 
particular part of a composition: Lines pointing di- 
rectly toward the object will accomplish the result; 
the frame of a window will compel the eye to dwell 
upon that which is within the space ; a form may be 
repeated on either side of the thing to be emphasized, 
and when everybody in a picture is looking at an ob- 
ject, naturally we, also, will look at it. 

If the artist takes up his station on an eminence — 
a hill or mountain — the horizon will be high in the 
picture ; if he lies on the ground the horizon line in the 
picture will be low. By framing a portrait so that the 
head of a figure comes nearly to the top the individual 
will look like a tall man. If you leave much space 
over the head he becomes a short man, regardless of 
his actual stature. The old portrait painters used to 
put the horizon line knee high in their compositions 
and the effect was heroic. 

Balance means equality of weight but not neces- 
sarily equality of volume. A small body on the long 
end of a steelyard will balance a large body on the 
short end. In picture-making a large mass on one 
side of a picture is balanced by a small isolated spot 
at the other side. A strong light on one side of a 
composition is balanced by a gradation of lights on 
the other side. A candelabrum on each end of a 
mantel shelf balance, but there are many ways to 
secure balance without resorting to duplication. A 
figure or an object placed exactly in the center of a 
canvas is balanced, but when removed to one side of 
the picture the impression of emptiness which would 
be left may be overcome by the introduction of a very 
insignificant detail, such as a fold of drapery. 

106 




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Two or more lines are in rhythm when they run 
the same way, but they are antagonistic when op- 
posed to each other. Antagonistic Hnes are useful in 
establishing equilibrium. For instance, soldiers when 
marching in review all lean forward, but the shoul- 
dered guns slant in the other direction and counteract 
the effect of men falling on their faces. 

The diversity of methods of composition employed 
by the masters of art renders it difficult to state any 
preference for one over another. That which has suc- 
ceeded most effectively in one example may prove em- 
barrassing to the student in working out a similar 
problem. Rather seek a process suited to your own 
peculiar needs and capacity than to force upon your- 
self rules which may not be adequate to the practical 
end, however they may be recommended by high 
authority. 

One finds in Japanese pictures a certain spon- 
taneity which is very compelling. The designs are 
like fragments of song wafted to us on a vagrant 
breeze, tempting and promising. There is an indi- 
viduality and a simplicity of composition in the art of 
Japan, forceful and most direct in its appeal. Even 
the fantastic figures are so cleverly arranged that we 
overlook the grotesque drawing. To be sure, the un- 
usual is to be sought for in composition, but an appar- 
ent straining for sensational effects is to be deplored. 

The highest phase in art is the expression of the 
imagination. Semiconsciously the innumerable im- 
pressions evolved by the memory are blended by the 
artist into an idea which can be said to be original, but 
imaginative pictures must necessarily be based upon 
the knowledge of natural form. 

108 




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Composition showing horizon line high in picture 

We deal with a living world, and if an artist suc- 
ceeds in giving us the essence and character of things 
we may be lenient about technique. There is no form- 
ula for painting; to make the pupil understand 
what he sees is the most that any master can hope. 

It may be that one artist delights in the dextrous 
application of his medium ; to another it is the sub- 
ject which appeals, and to others it is the narrative 
or story-telling quality. *' Style " is the expression of 
this individuality, and style may be acquired. But it 
is never to be considered as the ultimate aim. It 
may be taken as proof that the painter or illustrator, 
by hard work, has lifted himself to a position where 
he convinces others that the conception and produc- 
tion of his pictures are personal. For this reason we 
should not harken back to any period or to any mas- 




"THE BLUE BOY" 

By Gainsborough 

Composition showing horizon hne at height of knees 



ter, but endeavor to discover new fields, new ways 
of getting results. Every step in the progress of art 
has been in unexplored territory, and if the discovered 
principle was worthy it has lived. 

The simple and unaffected indicate greatness. 
The painter who is everlastingly trying to do the sub- 
lime will stumble over the little things which con- 
stitute sublimity. There is no masterly handiwork 
without the masterly thought behind it. There is no 
such thing as inspiration. Good work is premedi- 
tated, truthful, sure, and when done can be done 
again. 

It may not be amiss to advise the pupil to carefully 
look after his bodily health, as any physical disturbance 
interferes seriously with the mental processes. Dis- 
traction caused by a disordered system will hamper 
and clog the mind. The brain must be in control, 
alert, retentive, for it often happens that an accidental 
stroke of the brush is suggestive, and one should be 
ever ready to take advantage of the unexpected and 
profit by experience. 

In this Preparatory work we have concerned our- 
selves with primary exercises. Learning how to read 
in art terms, to spell in its symbols. It is said of 
Leonardo da Vinci that his dexterity was such that he 
could draw with both hands at the same time, but 
though we may not aspire to such cleverness we at 
least have a sure foundation upon which to biiild and 
advance our knowledge. 



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